(1)       Normal Soils of the Flat Plains and Old Flood Plains

           The normal soils of the flat plain constitute major portion of the area in Phagwara Tehsil. It is nearly level to gently sloping.  At places, it is broken by the White Bein and the tributaries.  On the other hand, normal soils of the old flood plain constituting about four per cent of the total area occupy a large portion of the Kapurthala and Sultanpur Lodhi tehsils.  It is situated between Beas River and the sand-bar-belt running almost parallel to the river. The normal cultivated deposits of the flat plains of Phagwara Tehsil are relatively older and fine textured as compared to those of the fold plain soils of the Kapurthala District. Soils are reddish-brown to dark grayish-brown in color, sandy loam to loam in texture and are well drained with moderate permeability.

(2)             Salt-affected Soils of Flat Plains and Old Flood Plains

The localized depression areas around the beins in flat plains of Phagwara Tehsil are gently sloping and eroded and are affected with salinity and alkalinity. The flooding and rise of the water table in the recent past might be responsible for development of salt affected soils in the old flood plain area of the Kapurthala and Sultanpur Lodhi tehsils.

The salt-affected soils of Phagwara Tehsil differ from those of Kapurthala area with respect to drainage, as Phagwara soils are relatively heavier in texture, imperfectly drained and situated on upland and/or eroded land surface positions.

(a) Moderately salt affected (Cultivated) Soils. –The moderately salt affected (cultivated) soils of the Kapurthala District) are fairly well drained with medium permeability and intake rates. These soils are usually cultivated for paddy and wheat but produce much below their potential capacity. These are found in the Sultan-pur Lodhi and Kapurthala Tehsils and a part of Phagwara Tehsil. The surface soils range in color from dark yellowish-brown to dark-grayish brown with sandy loam-to-loam texture while sub-surface soils range from dark-brown to dark yellowish-brown and in texture from silty clay loam to clay loam. They are relatively easier to reclaim because they are already cultivated, needless amount of gypsum for their reclamation.

(b) Severely Salt-affected (Barren) Soils. –Severely salt-affected soils of the Kapurthala District are imperfectly drained with slow permeability, because there is practically no movement of water in these soils probable due to the dispersed clay by excessive sodium. The soils contain a relatively high amount of salts, which are injurious to plant growth and lie barren and support dabh and bara grasses in scattered patches. These soils are mainly found around east or white Bein and in localized depressions around West Bein or Balck Bein and also along their tributaries in Phagwara tehsil. The surface soils range in color from grayish-brown to yellowish-brown and in texture from sandy loam to silty clay loam. The sub-surface soils range in color from dark grayish-brown to dark yellowish-brown and in texture from loam to clay loam. Reclamation of these soils requires removal of excess salts from the profile and replacement of sodium on exchange complex by calcium by addition of gypsum.

(3)             Sand Dune Soils and Uplands with Sand Covers

Soils developed on sand dunes are sandy in nature and are excessively drained with rapid permeability. These soils are confined to localized pockets and are largely cultivated for oilseed crops or remain under grasses. The surface soils range in color from yellowish-brown to pale-brown with sandy to loam sand texture. While sub-surface soils range in color from light yellowish-brown to brownish yellow and sand to loamy sand in texture. These soils need leveling for proper cultivation practices.

(4)             Recent Flood Plain Soils along the rivers Satluj and Beas

Soils are found in the riverbed areas along the rivers Satluj and Beas and are prone to floods. The soils are highly stratified with irregular distribution of clay and organic carbon with excessive drainage and rapid permeability. These soils are partly cultivated for oilseed crops. The barren areas have poor vegetation of shrubs like kahi and malah. The surface soils range in color from brown to dark-brown and in texture from sand to sandy loam. The sub-surface horizon range in color from grayish-brown to dark grayish brown and are sandy in texture.

(5)       Soils of the Filled-up Channels

           Most of these are filled-up by finer sediments.  These are formed as a result of frequent shifting and abandoning of old courses by east and west beins and their tributaries in the Kapurthala District.  The surface soils are dark-yellowish-brown to dark brown with clay loam to silty clay loam texture, while sub-surface soils are very dark-greyish –brown with clay loam to silty clay texture.  These are wet soils with poor drainage and very low intake rates due to heavy sub-surface texture.  These soils are intensively cultivated for paddy, wheat and sugarcane.

           Major and Subsidiary Crops.—As elsewhere in the State, there are two main harvest in the district, viz. rabi (hari) and kharif (sawani). The rabi or spring harvest consists of wheat, gram, barley, some oilseeds and fodders and potatoes and winter vegetable. It is sown in October-November and is harvested variously from mid-March to mid-May. The kharif or autumn harvest consists of rice, maize, bajra, sugarcane, cotton, pulses other than gram, peas and masser, chillies and some vegetables. It is sown in June-August and is reaped from early September to late December. Sugarcane and cotton are sown a little earlier. Some crops come in between these two harvests. For example, toria matures late in December and is classed as ziad (extra) kharif. Similarly, tobacoo and melons are harvested in June and are classed as zaid (extra) Rabi.

           As between the two main harvests, the area devoted to the rabi crop is a little more than that devoted to the kharif. The preponderance of rabi over the kharif is due to the existence of irrigation facilities. The detailed particulars regarding the area under different crops and their total production in the district, from 1971-72 and 1976-77 to 1981-82, are given Appendices I and II on pages 100 and 101.

           The important rabi and kharif crops are discusses as under:

Wheat

           Among food grains, wheat is the most important, and is the staple diet of the people. Mostly, it is sown under irrigated conditions and the remaining under barani conditions. With improvement in irrigation facilities, the area under the crop has increased from 67 thousand hectares in 1971-72 to 101 thousand hectares in 1981-82. During 1981-82, it produced 280 thousand metric tons of wheat.

Rice

           The increasing irrigation facilities and heavy rains and floods resulting in water logging have contributed to the increased cultivation of this food grains, from 29 thousand hectares during 1971-72 to 70 thousand hectares during 1981-82. Its production has gone up, from 66 thousand metric tons during 1971-72 to 219 thousand metric tons during 1981-82. The increase in area under rice cultivation is due to the fact that the income derived from it is more than that of maize, etc. The rice grown in the district is mostly of coarse varieties. Its nursery is sown in May and June and the transplantation is done at the end of the June and in the beginning of July. The harvesting season is October-November.

Maize

           The next important food grain of the district is maize, which is consumed abundantly in winter. It is generally sown on irrigated lands. Of late, hybrid varieties have found favour with the farmers. The production of the crop in the district was 16 thousand metric tons in 1981-82. The area under maize cultivation has been decreased from 15 thousand hectares during 1971-72 to 8 thousand hectares during 1981-82. The decrease in area under cultivation is due to the fact that the income derived from it is than that of rice.

Other Cereals

           Barley, bajara and jowar ate other cereals cultivated in the district. They are, however, subsidiary crops and are mostly grown in the barani areas.

Pulses

           The pulses grown in the district are gram, mash, moong and massar. During 1981-82, the area under mash, moong and massar cultivation was 0.25, 0.10 and 0.24 thousand hectares, respectively.

Oilseeds

           Groundnut, rape and mustard, linseed and sesamum are the oilseeds grown in the district. Of these, groundnut is the most important and the area under its cultivation was 8.9 thousand hectares during 1981-82 which produced 13 thousand metric tons of groundnut.

Other Crops

           Other crops grown in the district include sugarcane, dry chilies, potatoes and cotton desi. Of these, sugarcane is the most important and the area under its cultivation was 3 thousand hectares during 1981-82, which produced 17 thousand metric tons of gur. This crop is grown mostly under irrigated conditions and the extension of irrigation facilities and of water logging have been conducive to more and more area being devoted to it.

           Potatoes are also grown as an important commercial crop by progressive farmers. The area under its cultivation was 0.6 thousand hectares during 1981-82 which produced 11.9 thousand metric tons of potatoes. Cold storages for the storage of seed potato and table potatoes have been built up in the district.

           Cotton is also a fairly good cash crop of the district. Both American and desi varieties are sown. The American variety became popular in the mid-fifties but received a setback due to heavy rains and floods in subsequent years. The American cotton cannot stand heavy rains and rough weather as the desi cotton can. During 1981-82, the area under the cotton desi was 0.27 thousand hectares.

           Vegetable. —There is ample scope for an increase in the production of vegetables in the district because agro-climatically, he district is suitable for the production of almost all vegetables. Specially, he district is gaining importance for the increased production of potatoes. During 1981-82, the area covered under the potato crop in the district was 600 hectares.

           The total area under vegetables excluding potatoes in the district, during 1981-82, was 998 hectares. The names of various vegetables grown in the district are given below:

Winter vegetables. –Cauliflower (phul gobhi), cabbage (band gobhi) potato (alu), carrot (gajar), radish (muli), turnip (shalgam), spinach (palak), fenugreak (methi), onion (paiz), garlic (lassan), and peas, (matar).

Summer Vegetables. –Lady finger (bhindi), bottlegourd (ghia kaddu), ash-groud (petha), pumpkin (halwa kaddu), brinjal round and long (baingan), tomato (tamatar), musk-melon (sarda kharbuza), bitter-gourd (karela), songe-gourd (ghia), water-melon (tarbuz), chillie (mirch), arum (arvi) and sweet-potato (shakarandi).

Fruit Crops. –Not much area is devoted to fruits in the district because of the small size of holdings and water logging. However, some farmers have planted grapes, ber, mangoes, guava, citrus, etc. During a981-82, the area under grapes, citrus and other fresh fruits was 2,9 and 45 hectares, respectively.

(iii)           Improved Agricultural Practices:

Alongside the effort to provide more and better irrigation facilities, schemes have been implemented to provide improved seed, farm machinery, complex fertilizers, plant protection chemicals and equipment. Thus in the span of a few years, Punjab has turned from a deficit State into a producer of surplus. However, top-most priorities which require immediate attention to step up agricultural production are: large-scale use of improved seeds, seedlings and plants which give higher yield and better quality produce; adoption of manorial schedules for different crops and soils and development of local manorial resources; adoption of better methods of cultivation, including dry farming practices and soil conservation of measures; and use of improved agricultural implements. The high yielding varieties of different crops sown in the district are given below:

The area under high-yielding varieties of wheat, rice nd maize, during 1981-82 was 100, 65 and 5 thousand hectares, respectively.

The percentage of area under high-yielding varieties to the total cropped area in the Kapurthala District for wheat, rice and maize, during 1971-72 and 1976-77 to 1981-82 is given below:

(iv)      Farmers’ Training Campus:

Farmers’ training camps are organized for kharif and rabi seasons each year at district, block and village levels, where farmers are trained in modern scientific methods of agriculture. Similarly, crop competitions are held to encourage the farmers. Besides, demonstrations are organized at the cultivators’ fields. All these measures promote a spirit of healthy competition among the cultivators for maximizing the production if important crops through the use of improved seeds, proper fertilizer doses, insect and pest control, use of weedicides and in time sowing of crops etc.

(v)       Rural Development Agency:

           The Rural Development programme, initiated jointly by the Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India and State Government, aims at improving the quality of life of the rural population especially the poor through expanded employment and income earning opportunities for them.  To achieve the desired results, there is an imperative need for bringing about the institutional, structural and attitudinal changes besides creating infrastructural facilities for implementing the programme.  In identifying the beneficiaries under the programme, high priority was given to those families whose income was below Rs. 3,600 per annum.  A survey was conducted during the year 1980-81 for identifying those families having income of less than Rs. 3,600 per annum.  The head of the family was issued a yellow card duly signed and stamped by Block Development and Panchayat Officer.

           Rural Development Agency, Kapurthala came into existence on 1 May 1981 after bifurcation of Jalandhar-Kapurthala Agency.  The grant-in-aid from Centre and State Governments formulates the funds of the agency, which are meant for subsidizing the beneficiaries already identified.  The beneficiaries are financed by the commercial banks in the form of loans and the Agency releases the subsidy 25 per cent for the small farmers and 33 1/3 per cent for marginal farmers and agricultural  labourers.

(vi)      Agricultural  Co-operatives:

           The co-operative movement has made great headway as its message has reached every where.  Various developmental activities are now carried on through co-operatives.  Villagers are taught the advantages of pooling their manpower and other material resources to produce more, and co-operative societies of producers are used as channels for conveying government aid in the form of cash or kind to the village.

           There is absolutely no doubt that co-operatives have played a key role in ushering in the green revolution in the State.  They are now proving an equally potent instrument in bringing about the white revolution.  The role of cooperatives in the green revolution extends from distributing fertilizers at controlled prices to granting loans involving the supply of inputs and all other type of activity.  The distribution of fertilizers was handed over to the Punjab State Co-operative Supply and Marketing Federation Ltd., popularly known as Markfed, partly in 1960 and wholly in 1967.  Considerable credit for the rise in the consumption of agricultural  inputs, most of which were supplied to farmers on terms of deferred payment, goes to this cooperative institution.  However, every village in the State has a cooperative society of one type or another.

           Cooperation in India is a twentieth-century invention, which celebrated its golden jubilee in 1954.  Co-operation is primarily a poor man’s organization.  It fits in with an economy in which the small cultivator is the central figure.  Through cooperation, he acquires strength.  One cannot think of a more wholesome philosophy for a country of self-reliant cultivators.

           Towards the close of the nineteenth century, the farmer was in the clutches of the moneylender and the rural debt was continuously mounting.  It was in such circumstances that in 1882, Mr Nicholson was deputed by Madras Government to study the working of the cooperative village banks in Germany.  He submitted his report in 1897 and suggested the starting of cooperative societies in the country on the German model.  About this time, Dupernex in U. P., Maclagan in Punjab and Lyon in Bengal were also organizing credit societies, but there was no legislation for organizing them.  The Famine Commission of 1901 also strongly recommended the starting of village credit societies.  However, Lord Curzon appointed a committee under Sir Law with Nicholson and Dupernex as members to go into the whole question and to make proposals.  It suggested the form of legislation and also drew up model schemes for the management of co-operative Credit Societies act was passed in 1904.  The object of this Act was to encourage thrift, self-help and co-operation among agriculturists, artisans and persons of limited means.  But this Act proved insufficient to meet the growing needs of the movement.  Co-operative Societies Act of 1912 was, therefore, passed and it recognized three kinds of central societies in addition to the primary societies recognized by the Act of 1904.  The Act also recognized co-operation in fields other than credit.  However, co-operative have shown an all-round progress and their membership has increased sharply.

(1)       Primary Agricultural  Credit/Service Societies:

           The co-operative movement is a major source of credit to farmers.  The readily available credit which the co-operatives provide enables farmers to obtain their agricultural  inputs in time.  Their needs are met directly by agricultural  credit societies which cover almost all the villages in the State.  These societies play crucial guiding role in the Government’s campaigns to increase agricultural  production.  In view of the rise in the price of chemical fertilizers, the borrowing limit of members of these societies has been raised from Rs. 6,000 to Rs. 8,000.

           In the Punjab State, the short-term and medium-term credit structure is based on a three-tier system, i.e. Apex Co-operative Banks at the State level, Central Co-operative Banks at district/tehsil level and Primary Agricultural  Credit/Service Societies at the village level.  The major objectives of the primary agricultural  credit/service societies are to supply agricultural credit, distribution of essential consumer commodities, provision of storage and marketing facilities and for light agricultural  implements and machinery.

           The long-term credit needs of agriculturists for land development, minor irrigation works and purchase of tractors and other capital goods are met by the Punjab State Co-operative Land Mortgage Bank, which operates through primary land mortgage banks at the district/tehsil level.  The State Government is also developing dairy farming in the district on co-operative lines. However, the co-operatives have helped not only agriculturists with limited cash resources but also other weaker sections of society.

           In the Kapurthala District, in 1956-57, there were 168 Agricultural  Credit Societies with a membership of 9,414 and working capital of 1,406 thousand rupees; and they issued loans amounting to Rs. 532 thousand.  By 1959-60, their number went up to 286 with a membership of 20,856 and working capital of 3,342 thousand rupees.  This year, they advanced loans to the tune of 1,824 thousand rupees.  In 1981-82, there were 140 agricultural co-operative credit societies in the district, with a membership of 64,919.  The loans advanced during the year amounted to Rs. 1,187.17 lakhs and the deposits to Rs. 192.05 lakhs.

           There was one Central Co-operative Bank functioning the district with 5 branches at different places.  Besides, three Primary Land Mortgage Banks are functioning in the district to meet the demand for long-term finance of the agriculturists.

(2)       Agricultural Non-Credit Societies:

           These societies Act, 1912.  The main provisions of the Act were that recognition was given to non-credit societies as purchase, sale production societies, etc. to central agencies as unions of primary societies to central banks, and to provincial banks; the old distinction between the rural and urban societies was replaced by a more scientific distinction of limited and unlimited liability basis, and after providing one-fourth of the profits to reserve funds, the societies were allowed to declare dividend.  Thus under this Act, not only credit societies but any society which aimed at the promotion of the economic interests for the members could be established.

           However, these societies are set up for the purchase of agricultural  requirements like implements, machinery, manures and seeds; for the sale of agricultural  produce insurance of cattle, crops, etc., for purposes of cattle-breeding and for similar other purposes like village uplife, better farming and better living, etc..  The number of agricultural  non-credit societies, viz. marketing, sugarcane, supply, milk supply and farming societies in the district, in 1981-82, was 236.

Agricultural  Co-operative Marketing Societies:

           With a view to enabling the farmer to negotiate a square deal and to get a fair share of value of his produce, it is essential that the marketing of farm products should be systematic, scientific and well organized.  For this purpose, Agricultural  Co-operative Marketing Societies are functioning at various places in the district.  These societies make arrangements for the supply of agricultural  requisites and consumer articles in the rural area.

           At the State level, there is the Punjab State Co-operative Supply and Marketing Federation (MARKFED), wholesale societies at the district level and marketing societies at the market level.

           In 1981-82, there were 9 agricultural  co-operative marketing societies in the district, with a total membership of 1,703 (242 societies and 1,461 individuals).  These societies marketed produce worth Rs. 149.42 lakhs during the year.

Co-operative Farming Societies

           Co-operative farming is a compromise between collective farming and peasant proprietorship and gives all the advantages of large-scale farming without abolishing private property.  It implies an organization of farmers on the basis of common efforts for common interests.  Under this system, all landowners in the village form a co-operative society for tilling the land.  The land is pooled but each farmer retains the right of property.  The produce is distributed among the members in proportion to the land and labour contributed by each.  They are allowed to withdraw from the co-operative farm whenever they so desire.  In 1980-81, there were 64 co-operative farming societies in the district.

Other Societies:

           There are a number of other co-operative societies in the agricultural and allied fields.  Their number in the district during 1980-81, was as under:

Serial No.

Type of Societies

Number (1980-81)

1.

Co-operative Agricultural Societies

140

2.

Co-operative Milk Supply Societies

161

3.

Co-operative Housing Societies

42

4.

Co-operative Sugarcane Supply Societies

2

(vii)     Progress of Scientific Agriculture:

           The progress of scientific agriculture achieved in various spheres including improved implements, seeds, crop rotation, fallow cultivation, fertilizers and manures is described below:

Agricultural Implements:

           The programme for the popularization and distribution of improved implements, which help in increasing agricultural production and also save time, and labour continued during the year.  Improved cotton drills and pneumatic tyred carts are recent additions to the farmers’ equipment.  Most of the farming families have also acquired iron stirring ploughs.  Persian wheels are being replaced by tube-wells and pumping-sets.  The traditional system of threshing wheat under the feet of bullocks has been almost discarded in favour of the mechanical method through power threshers operated with tractors or small motors.  The farmers are also using precision machines like seed-drills, seed-cum-fertilizer-drills, corn planters, etc.  However, improved agricultural  implements viz. iron plough, disc-harrows, shellers, sprayers, maize and wheat threshers, combine harvesters for wheat and paddy, etc., are getting very popular.  A large number of diesel engines have also been installed.  The tractor constitutes a tremendous source of farm power and is rapidly replacing the age-old conventional motive power, the bullocks.  As a power unit, it has progressed from its original primary use as a substitute for the bullocks to the present position designed for multiple use.  Tractors are also rapidly gaining popularity in the district.  Their number in the district rose from 95 in 1961 to 2,219 in 1977.  The number of carts was 8,826 in 1977.

           The old type of agricultural  implements still invogue in the district are hal (plough) khurpa, sickle, kasola, etc.  But the improved implements are being gradually adopted by the farmers in accordance with their utility and scope for  use.  The  Department of Agriculture is also approaching the farmers to adopt scientific methods through individual contacts through field staff and through radio programmes.

Seeds:

           Improved seeds constitute a basic requirement for increasing agricultural production.  Their, sufficient quantities of various inputs are arranged by the district authorities.  The cultivators are given training in the latest techniques of growing improved varieties of seeds at the district, block and village level.  Besides, various schemes have been implemented to provide improved seeds; seedlings and plants which give higher yield and better quality produce.  Private agencies and the National Seeds Corporation also assist the farmers in the supply and distribution of various types of seeds.

           The Punjab Improved Seeds and Seedlings Act, 1950, provides for the use of pure seeds and seedlings recommended by the Department of Agriculture and makes it incumbent on cultivators, in any notified area, to use only improved varieties of seeds stored by authorized agents.

Corp Rotation:

           Each crop removes from the soil certain particular nutrients more than the other nutrients.  If the same crop is repeated year after year on the same land, the soil will become deficient in those particular nutrients.  Therefore, the farmers have adopted leguminous crops in the crop rotation which help to improve the soil fertility.  Besides, crop rotations differ according to the different type of soils/area and to the other prevailing conditions.  the rotations generally followed in the Kapurthala District, according to the type of soil/area are: if the type of soil is dona, the main crop rotations being followed are: groundnut-wheat, groundnut-fallow, maize-wheat, cotton-wheat, and fodder-wheat; if the type of area is bet where the soil is clay loam or loamy, clay, the main crop rotations being followed are: paddy-wheat, maize-wheat, fodder-wheat, and toria-wheat if the type of soil is mid way between clay loan or loamy clay which are met in Phagwara Tehsil, the main crop rotations being followed are; maize-wheat, paddy-wheat, sugarcane-wheat, and fodder-wheat, cotton-wheat; and if the soil is saline and alkaline, the main crop rotations being followed are paddy-wheat.

Fallow Cultivation:

           The cultivation of land which was left fallow in the past for gaining fertility is called fallow cultivation.  However, with the progress of scientific methods of cultivation, availability of irrigational facilities, good manuring and judicious rotation of crops, etc, this method is losing its importance.  In 1981-82, only one thousand bectares of land were left fallow in the district.

Fertilizers and Manures:

           Fertilizers and manures are the most important inputs for increasing crop production.  Therefore, top-most priority is given for the adoption of manorial schedules for different crops and soils and development of local manorial resources.  These inputs improve the texture and fertility of the soil.

Chemical Fertilizers

           Chemical fertilizers are inorganic materials of a concentrated nature, which are mainly applied to increase the supply of one or more the essential nutrients.  These include nitrogen, phosphorus, potash, etc, which contain these elements in the form of soluble or readily available chemical compounds.  However, this distinction is not so rigid.  Commonly, the fertilizers are sometimes called ‘chemical’, artificial’, or ‘inorganic’ manures. With a view to providing facilities of soil testing, the State Marketing Federation and the Agriculture Department have set up laboratories at various places.

The following table shows the use of chemical fertilizers in the district, 1977-78 to 1981-82:

Year

Consumption of chemical fertilizers  (000 Nutrient tonnes)

1977-78

21

1978-79

28

1979-80

32

1980-81

38

1981-82

37
Local Manurial Resources

Rural Compost and Cattle-Dung Manure:

           The most valuable organic matter applied to soil is good quality farm year manure this is the oldest type of manure used ever since cultivation started and remains the most important.  It consists of mainly vegetable substances mixed with animal dung and urine.  In view of the importance of this manure, the Government has launched a campaign to make the best use of farm-year manure and the wastes.  Gobar gas plants have been installed with the help of a 25 per cent subsidy and loans from commercial banks.  The East Punjab Conservation of Manures Act 1949 (Amended in 1950) provides for the setting up of manure conservation committees and empowers the State Government to notify particular areas for the purpose of conserving manure and makes it incumbent on cultivators to take such measures as may be necessary for the purpose.  The rural compost scheme was made permanent in the State in October 1966.

Year

Rural Compost prepared (in metric tonnes)

1977-78

12,56,700

1978-79

11,93,500

1979-80

12,82,640

1980-81

10,29,715

1981-82

10,34,747

           (Source:          Field Manure Officer-cum-Compost Officer, Punjab, Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar)

Green Manuring:

           Farm-yard manure and compost are not available in sufficient quantities to the farmers to meet their full requirements.  Green manuring is, thus, a very useful soil-improving practice which increases the soil fertility by the direct addition of nitrogen to the soil.  Besides, it improves the soil texture by the addition of humus or organic matter which is essential for making the soil more productive.  It also increased the water-holding capacity of the soil.  The crops generally used for green manuring are guara, dhaincha, saul-hemp, sonji and barseem.

 

           The extension of the green manuring scheme which was introduced in the State in April 1961 aims at popularization the use of green manure.  The area under this in the district, during 1977-78 to 1981-82, is given below:

Year

Area under green Manuring (Area in hectares)

1977-78

2,794

1978-79

22,000

1979-80

26,000

1980-81

13,074

1981-82

15,960
Town Compost and Sullage Utilization

           Town Compost.—The bulky organic manures are very important for building up soil fertility. The refuse available in the towns, e.g. all sorts of waste organic matter such as cattle dung, house refuse, leaves of trees and night-soil, are source of good quality compost. The town compost scheme was introduced in the state in 1944. Under this, all town wastes are collected and allowed to decompose in trenches. The quantity of town compost prepared in the district, during 1977-78 to 1981-82, is given below: 

Year

Town compost prepared (in metric tonnes)

1977-78

-

1978-79

26,000

1979-80

-

1980-81

-

1981-82

-

 

(Source:          Field Manure Officer-cum-Compost Officer, Punjab, Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar)

 Sullage Utilization:

           Sewage or sullage is a mixture of numerous kinds of household/individual wastes which are carried away by water.  This is of organic and is highly useful for all crops.  It is easily available for fields in the vicinity of towns.

(vii)     Agricultural Insect-Pests and Diseases and Obnoxious Weeds:

Insect-pests and Diseases:

           With the intensification of multiple cropping origin patterns coupled with increased use of inputs, the pest incidence is likely to increase.  Thus, the importance of plant protection measures has assumed new dimensions.  So large-scale plant protection campaigns are organized including serial spraying of cotton, etc.

           The following major pests and diseases damage crops, vegetables are fruits in the district:-

Crops Pests and Diseases:

           Wheat:            1.        Termites   Rusts

2.        Karnal Bunt

3.        Loose Smuts

Rice               1.        Bacterial leaf blight

2.        Seedling Chlorosis

3.        Leaf hoffer

4.        Rice hispa

Maize                         Maize borer

Groundnut      1.        Leaf spot (Tikka disease)

2.                Collarrot

3.                Termites

4.                Hairy caterpillar

Sugarcane       1.        Red rot

2.                Pyrilla

3.                Black bug

4.                Termites

5.                Borers

Oil seeds crops           Aphid/Jassid

Vegetable Pests and Diseases:

           Potato             1.        Early/Late blight

2.                Cut Worm

3.                Aphid/Jassid

Cauliflower                1.        Damping off

2.        Stem borer

3.        Diamond back moth

4.        Tobacco caterpillar

5.        Aphid/Jassid

           6.        Hairy caterpillar

Brinjal                        1.        Little leaf disease

2.        Blight

3.        Mite

4.        Madda

5.        Aphid/Jassid

6.        Fruit and short borer

Bhindi(Lady finger)     1.        Yellow mosaic

2.                Spotted boll worm

Chillies            1.        Fruit rot

2.                Dieback

3.                Mite

4.                Thrips

5.                Aphid

6.                Whitefly

7.                Termites

Fruits Pests and Diseases:

           Fruit trees                  1.        Canker

2.                Die back

3.                Citrus Psylla

4.                Mite

Mango                       1.        Mango malformation

2.                Mango mealy bug

3.                Mango hopper

Grape                        1.        Powdery mildew

2.                Grape Vine thrips

Guava                       Fruit borer

Research Stations:

           The Punjab Agricultural  University, Ludhiana, is running a research station at Kapurthala which is doing research work for increasing yield and quality of rice crop.  There are also a few model farms, viz. demonstration centers set up by the staff of the University.  Training camps are organized at district, block and village level.  Agricultural shows and demonstrations are put up.  Similarly, crop competitions are held to encourage farmers to sow crops according to improved practices.

(d)       Animal Husbandry, Poultry and Fisheries

           Cattle constitute a very important element in the prosperity, development and well being of the district. Oxen are the main source of power for agricultural operations. The economy of the district rests primarily on agricultural and cattle raising is its mainstay.

           The Animal Husbandry Department has started a cross breeding programme  for cattle and there is a semen bank functioning at Kapurthala. Poultry farming is well established in the district. There is an increase in the number of poultry farms in the private sector, which has resulted in increased demand for day-old pullets. Besides, the state government is conscious of the important role milk plays in the diet of the rural as well as urban community and is, therefore, encouraging the development of modern dairy farming as subsidiary to agriculture.

           The following table shows the livestock population in the district from 1956 to 1977:

(Hundreds)

 

Particulars

 

1956

 

1961

 

1966

 

1972

 

1977

 

1. Livestock

2,338

2,324

2,657

3,456

3,174

Cattle

1,232

1,241

1,316

1,556

1,401

Buffaloes

881

967

1,180

1,568

1,579

Horses and ponies

14

13

11

23

17

Donkeys

18

11

7

16

5

Mules

9

1

1

2

1

Sheep

7

6

13

17

20

Goats

175

84

124

267

137

Camels

2

1

2

1

(a)

Pigs

(a)

(a)

3

6

14

2. Poultry

229

414

537

1,060

1,176

           (a)       Denotes less than 50

           (Census of India, 1961, Punjab District Handbook, No. 15, Kapurthala District, and Statistical abstracts of Punjab, 1966, 1972 1976 and 1982)

 

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